55
Gabriela Gomes Coelho Ferreira, Rodrigo Pedrosa Lyra, Amâncio Jorge Silva de Oliveira Measuring Brazilian science diplomacy:
what do internaonal students think of Brazil?
The Interplay Between International
Relations and Science, Technology and
Innovation: An Analysis of Embraer’s
International Partnerships1
A Interface entre Relações Internacionais, Ciência,
Tecnologia e Inovação: Uma Análise das Parcerias
Internacionais da Embraer
La interacción entre las relaciones internacionales Capes
la ciencia, la tecnología Capes la innovación: Un análisis
de las asociaciones internacionales de Embraer
Maurílio Daros2
Iara Costa Leite3
Vitelio Marcos Brustolin4
DOI: 10.5752/P.2317-773X.2022v10n4p55-71.
Recebido em:09/02/2022
Aprovado em: 17/10/2023
A
International partnerships have been fundamental to Embraer’s technological
advancement. The very creation of the company was only possible due to prior
support received from specialized institutions in countries such as the United Sta-
tes, with governmental support. Even so, academic works on Embraer focus very
little on its international agreements. This article maps and systematizes litera-
ture on international partnerships involving Embraer retrieved by Scopus, Scielo
and the CAPES Thesis and Dissertation Catalog. In addition to presenting quanti-
tative data that corroborates the nding on low participation of specic literature
on international partnerships involving Embraer, this article demonstrates that
almost none of the articles retrieved by the search are from the eld of Interna-
tional Relations. In general, concepts and theories on which the mapped litera-
ture relies assume a purely transnational component in the partnerships without
taking into account, for instance, the role of states in supervising international
knowledge ows. Contributions made by the literature, while relevant to un-
derstanding business partnerships involving knowledge ows, do not necessarily
consider the uniqueness of such ows when they cross national borders. Further-
more, it is demonstrated that the mapped literature does not take the partnership
axis (North-South or South-South) as a relevant variable for eectiveness.
Keywords: Embraer; Brazil; Airplane manufacturers; Science, technology and
innovation; International partnerships.
1. We thank the National Council for
Scientific and Technological Develop-
ment - CNPQ (Universal Public Notice
2016), the Visiting Professors Abroad
Program 2019-2020 of the Coordination
for the Improvement of Higher Education
Personnel - CAPES and the Support Fund
for the Maintenance and Development
of Education Superior of Santa Catarina
Sate for the financial resources destined
to the authors of this article.
2. Maurílio Eduardo Daros holds a
Master’s degree in International Relations
at Federal University of Santa Catarina.
Received his Bachelor’s in International
Relations from the same university. His
research focuses on international coopera-
tion in Science, Technology, and Innovation
(STI). Email:maurilio.daross@gmail.com.
3. Iara Costa Leite is Associate Profes-
sor of the Department of Economics and
International Relations of the Federal
University of Santa Catarina (UFSC)
and leader of the CNPq research group
Relações Internacionais e Ciência, Tec-
nologia e Inovação (RICTI – International
Relations and Science, Technology and
Innovation). PhD in Political Science
(IESP/UERJ), Master’s in International
Relations (PUC-Rio), Bachelor’s in Inter-
national Relations (PUC-Minas). Emails:
iara.leite@ufsc.br | iaracleite@hotmail.
com | Academic websites: ricti.ufsc.br.
4. Vitelio Brustolin is a Research Scien-
tist at Harvard Law School, a Visiting
Professor at the Harvard Department
of the History of Science, an Adjunct
Professor at Columbia University in
the School of International and Public
Affairs, and a University Professor at
the Institute of Strategic Studies and
International Relations (INEST) of the
Fluminense Federal University (UFF).
PhD and MSc in Public Policy, Strategy,
and Development (UFRJ and Harvard).
Bachelor’s of Legal Sciences (JD) and
Social Sciences (BA) from URI. Emails:
brustolin@g.harvard.edu | viteliobrus-
tolin@id.uff.br Academic websites:
https://scholar.harvard.edu/brustolin |
www.professores.uff.br/brustolin.
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estudos internacionais • Belo Horizonte, ISSN 2317-773X, v. 10, n. 4, (nov. 2022), p. 55-71
R
As parceiras internacionais foram fundamentais para o avanço tecnológico da Embraer.
A própria criação da empresa só foi possível graças ao apoio prévio recebido de insti-
tuições especializadas de países como os Estados Unidos, com o apoio governamental.
Ainda assim, os trabalhos acadêmicos sobre a Embraer se debruçam muito pouco sobre
os acordos internacionais da empresa. Este artigo mapeia e sistematiza a literatura
sobre as parcerias internacionais envolvendo a Embraer por meio de consultas à Scopus,
à Scielo e ao Catálogo de Teses e Dissertações da CAPES. Além de apresentar dados
quantitativos que corroboram a constatação acerca da baixa participação da literatura
especíca sobre as parcerias internacionais envolvendo a Embraer, demonstra-se que
quase nenhum dos artigos retornados pela busca é da área de Relações Internacionais.
Em geral, os conceitos e as teorias em que a literatura mapeada se baseia presumem um
componente de caráter puramente transnacional nas parcerias, sem levar em conta, por
exemplo, o papel dos Estados na supervisão do uxo internacional de conhecimentos. Os
aportes realizados pela literatura mapeada, ainda que relevantes para a compreensão de
parcerias empresariais que envolvam uxos de conhecimentos, não levam necessariamen-
te em consideração a singularidade de tais uxos quando perpassam as fronteiras nacio-
nais. Além disso, demonstra-se que a literatura mapeada não toma o eixo das parcerias
(Norte-Sul ou Sul-Sul) como variável relevante para sua efetividade.
Palavras-chave: Embraer; Brasil; Fabricantes de aeronaves; Ciência, tecnologia e inova-
ção; Parcerias internacionais.
R
Las asociaciones internacionales han sido fundamentales para el avance tecno-
lógico de Embraer. La propia creación de la empresa sólo fue posible gracias al
apoyo previo recibido de instituciones especializadas de países como Estados
Unidos, con apoyo gubernamental. Aun así, los trabajos académicos sobre Em-
braer se centran muy poco en sus acuerdos internacionales. Este artículo mapea
Capes sistematiza la literatura sobre asociaciones internacionales que involucran
a Embraer, recuperada por Scopus, Scielo Capes el Catálogo de Tesis Capes Di-
sertaciones de CAPES. Además de presentar datos cuantitativos que corroboran
la constatación de la baja participación de la literatura especíca sobre asocia-
ciones internacionales que involucran a Embraer, este artículo demuestra que
casi ninguno de los artículos recuperados por la búsqueda es del campo de las
Relaciones Internacionales. En general, os conceptos y las teorías que respaldan
la literatura mapeada asumen un componente puramente transnacional en las
asociaciones sin tener en cuenta, por ejemplo, el papel de los Estados en la su-
pervisión de los ujos internacionales de conocimiento. Las aportaciones de la
bibliografía, si bien son relevantes para comprender las asociaciones empresaria-
les que implican ujos de conocimiento, no consideran necesariamente la singu-
laridad de dichos ujos cuando atraviesan las fronteras nacionales. Además, se
demuestra que la literatura mapeada no toma el eje de la asociación (Norte-Sur
o Sur-Sur) como una variable relevante para la ecacia.
Palabras clave: Embraer; Brasil; Fabricantes de aviones; Ciencia, tecnología e
innovación; Asociaciones internacionales.
INTRODUCTION
The interplay between international relations and science, technol-
ogy and innovation (STI) is increasingly important in the contemporary
world, permeating dynamics of cooperation and conict in areas such
as defense, development, and the environment. To grasp such interplay
satisfactorily, it is necessary to investigate not only transnational interac-
57
Maurílio Daros, Iara Costa Leite, Vitelio Marcos Brustolin The Interplay Between Internaonal Relaons and Science, Technology and Innovaon:
An Analysis of Embraer’s Internaonal Partnerships
tions established between knowledge repository actors, such as compa-
nies and universities, but also the role of states in overseeing international
knowledge ows - either promoting or restricting them.
Although liberal-inspired perspectives have predicted, and even
celebrated, diminishing state control over international knowledge ows
after the end of the Cold War (Wagner, 2008), in the current moment,
marked by the technological competition between China and the US, few
question the validity of understanding the relevance of states in dening
“policies and instruments that help draw the line between what kind of
knowledge will be shared with (or denied to) whom” (Krige, 2019, p. 13).
Although reference studies on the subject, such as those produced
by historians of science and technology, focus on the analysis of dynamics
related to the Cold War, particularly in the nuclear eld, they pose relevant
implications for studies of more recent phenomena and in other sectors.
One of them comes from the demonstration that, contrary to what liberal
theories on international cooperation, inspired by game theory, advocate,
cooperation and competition are not opposite dynamics (Leite; Gayard,
2019). The promotion of collaboration among scientists in the nuclear
eld, for example, was used by the US as a tool to access crucial knowl-
edge produced in countries with which it cooperated in order to monitor
the development of nuclear technology and prevent proliferation.
In many cases, while restricting access to nuclear strategic tech-
nologies, knowledge ows have been promoted in areas that might pose
little threat to the security of the United States, under a strategy known
as “positive disarmament”. Such strategy was applied, for instance, in the
promotion of space cooperation with Germany in the 1960s, diverting
the latter’s nuclear eorts (Krige, 2014). At the North-South level, the
same happened in the case of US-India collaboration during the Johnson
administration, which promoted knowledge ows in agricultural and
meteorological technologies in an attempt to confer a symbolic status to
Indian scientic-technological capabilities in areas that would not endan-
ger US security (Doel; Harper, 2006).
Likewise, the early years of the Cold War saw the emergence of
the American government’s concern about Brazilian interests in the pos-
session and trade of ssile materials as a bargaining tool in the search for
the accumulation of knowledge necessary for the development of nucle-
ar technology (Conselho de Segurança Nacional, 1947). In that context,
seemingly at an attempt to balancing moves by Washington to hinder
Brazilian access to nuclear know-how not only in the United States but
also in other countries (see, for example, US Department of State, 1947),
US aid initiatives started sponsoring knowledge ows from the US to Bra-
zil in other areas. We believe such ows have been crucial to laying the
grounds for Brazilian technological advance in areas such as aeronautics,
culminating with the creation of EMBRAER in 1969.
With those considerations as background, this article aims to un-
dertake a meta-analysis of the academic production on the interplay be-
tween international relations and STI in the case of Embraer. Through-
out its history, the company has entered partnerships with competing
rms, promoting knowledge sharing of aircraft production. However,
58
estudos internacionais • Belo Horizonte, ISSN 2317-773X, v. 10, n. 4, (nov. 2022), p. 55-71
even though the international element integrates the entire trajectory of
Embraer, it is still a topic that is poorly reected upon, as will be demon-
strated in this article. When academic literature examines the subject, in
general it is backed by concepts and theories that focus on company-com-
pany relations, and not on the role of states in supervising international
knowledge ows in aeronautics.
This article is divided in three sections: the rst one addresses the
research method and presents its statistical results. The second section
synthesizes the trajectory of Embraer, highlighting its main international
partnerships, including the ones that laid the ground for its creation. The
third section focuses on a qualitative discussion of the retrieved literature
on the interplay between STI, international relations, and the case of Em-
braer. At its conclusion, this article’s ndings are summarized and future
research avenues are pointed out.
METHODOLOGY AND STATISTICAL RESULTS OF THE SURVEY
The rst methodological step of this study was to map out litera-
ture on the interplay between international relations and STI in the case
of Embraer. To this end, the word “Embraer” was rst searched for in
the abstracts of articles registered with Scopus and Scielo, as well as in
the CAPES Thesis and Dissertation Catalog.5 Second, the literature was
screened by reading the abstracts of the retrieved papers, selecting those
in which the international element was present. Thereafter, those articles
with abstracts containing words such as “international,” “world,” “glob-
al,” “foreign,” “overseas,” any variants thereof, or mention of specic
countries or foreign companies or suppliers, such as Boeing and Airbus,
were selected. Finally, through a second reading of the abstracts, publica-
tions that incorporated the element of STI were identied.
The chart below illustrates the number of publications selected in
each step described above. Although the number of publications varied
greatly among the databases, in all cases there was a signicant decrease
in the number of publications when the searches for the international
element, and subsequently for STI, were introduced.
5. The CAPES Catalog is a database of
theses and dissertations defended in
Brazil.
59
Maurílio Daros, Iara Costa Leite, Vitelio Marcos Brustolin The Interplay Between Internaonal Relaons and Science, Technology and Innovaon:
An Analysis of Embraer’s Internaonal Partnerships
Chart 1 – Number of publications selected in each research step
Source: Produced by the authors
Once we mapped out publications in which the interplay between
international relations and STI was present, we proceeded to the system-
atization phase. The rst statistical result of this analysis pertains to the
type of material surveyed (Table 1), pointing to a prevalence of master’s
theses among the selected publications.
Table 1 – Selected literature classification by type of material
Material Type Number of selected works
Conference Paper 1
Journal Article 8
Thesis 16
Dissertation 1
Book chapter 1
Source: Produced by the authors
Regarding the areas of origin of the authors, the chart below shows
that professionals in engineering (aeronautical, production, or naval) are
the most frequent authors, followed by economists and business admin-
istration professionals.
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estudos internacionais • Belo Horizonte, ISSN 2317-773X, v. 10, n. 4, (nov. 2022), p. 55-71
Chart 2 – Selected literature classification according to authors’ area
Source: Produced by the authors
The fact that only one paper has been written by an International
Relations scholar (more precisely, from the area of Strategic Defense
and Security Studies) reinforces, for the case studied, assertions made
by authors such as Mayer, Carpes and Knöblich (2014), Skolniko (1993),
and Weiss (2005), considering that the area of International Relations
has not yet incorporated STI as a crucial element in its studies and ap-
proaches.
According to Susan Strange (1994), part of the puzzle of grasp-
ing the centrality of knowledge in international political economy dy-
namics relates to the fact that the structural power emanating from the
knowledge structure relies not only on the ability to provide knowl-
edge, but also to deny it. As stressed in this article’s introduction, in-
ternational knowledge ows can indeed be hindered or encouraged by
government policies, depending on the objective pursued. The Point
IV Program, initiated during the Truman administration in 1949, may
have represented not only a milestone in US attempts to share its scien-
tic advances and industrial progress with Third World countries as a
means to secure allies in the containment of communism (Lancaster,
2000), but also in the promotion of knowledge ows that could help
push developing countries’ scientic and technological eorts away
from nuclear proliferation.
As will be shown in the next section the Point IV Program, and lat-
er the Alliance for Progress, sponsored knowledge ows from the US to
Brazil that supported the accumulation of the capacities necessary for the
creation of Embraer. What follows is an illustration of the centrality of
international relations in Embraer’s trajectory, a topic not yet adequately
reected in the literature, as previously indicated.
61
Maurílio Daros, Iara Costa Leite, Vitelio Marcos Brustolin The Interplay Between Internaonal Relaons and Science, Technology and Innovaon:
An Analysis of Embraer’s Internaonal Partnerships
THE INTERNATIONAL TRAJECTORY OF EMBRAER
The trajectory of the development of the aeronautical industry in
Brazil, initially led by the state, is marked by a sequence of international
cooperation agreements aimed at bringing to the country technologies
that would accelerate local industry development. In June 1941, the initial
cornerstone for this development was laid when Brazil and the United
States signed an agreement based on the Lend-Lease Act, which regu-
lated military loans to allied countries. Besides providing more than 400
aircrafts to Brazil, that agreement allowed Brazilian Air Force ocers
to take a training course in the United States in exchange for the instal-
lation of American military bases in Brazil (Forjaz, 2005). The military
sta responsible for the creation of the Ministry of Aeronautics and the
Brazilian Air Force aimed to promote a national aeronautics industry and
access the required technology. This group, led by Salgado Filho, shared
the belief that the best option to achieve such goals was to support rap-
prochement with the US and, therefore, intensify negotiations with the
country to equip the Air Force and train its personnel (Moura, 1996).
After the Second World War, a group of aeronautical ocers,6 led
by Casimiro Montenegro Filho, began planning the creation of an insti-
tution focused on the development of the aeronautical industry in Brazil
(Forjaz, 2005).7 Aimed at establishing organizations that combined teach-
ing, technological research, and training of engineers, an agreement to
receive a mission of professors from the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology (MIT) supported the creation of an aeronautical engineering
school, which would later become the Brazilian Aeronautical Institute of
Technology (ITA) (Forjaz, 2005; Martinez, 2007).
At the end of the 1950s, ITA began to earn support from ocial
US development assistance programs, initially through the Point IV Pro-
gram and later the Alliance for Progress (Forjaz, 2005). The initiative that
counted with the largest amount of resources was perhaps the agreement
between the US Agency for International Development (USAID) and the
University of Michigan, signed in 1962 and implemented between 1964
and 1967. USAID earmarked $1.4 million that allowed 14 University of
Michigan professors, for instance, to create a mechanical engineering
graduate program at ITA, equip its laboratories, and promote contacts be-
tween ITA and other institutions, including the industry (Mouzon, 1967).
ITA and the Aeronautical Technical Center (CTA), created in 1947,8
were key institutions for the establishment of aeronautical companies in
Brazil, the most important being Embraer, which was established in 1969
as a mixed economy society, controlled by the federal government and
linked to the Ministry of Aeronautics. The company’s primary objective
was to meet the demand for production of the aircraft Bandeirante,9 de-
signed by CTA for the Brazilian Air Force (Drumond, 2004).
In 1971, Embraer established a partnership with the Italian Aermac-
chi to manufacture the EMB 326 Xavante,10 allowing the Brazilian compa-
ny to accumulate know-how, for instance, in technical material develop-
ment, integration technology, jet engine testing, and improved techniques
for large-scale production (Mattos, 2005). Two years later, an agreement
6. Most of this group of military person-
nel had international aviation expertise
and had studied at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT).
7. Montenegro Filho was responsible for
bringing the North American physicist
Richard Smith, head of the Aerodyna-
mics Department at Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT), who
played a key role in the creation of ITA
(Forjaz, 2005).
8. Centro Tecnológico de Aeronáutica
was created in parallel with ITA, with
the main goal of supporting the nascent
aeronautical industry through scientific
research and technical surveys, leading
and promoting the scientific and
technological advancement of Brazilian
aviation (Forjaz, 2005).
9. Bandeirante was the result of two
successful prototypes created by the
CTA team. It not only met FAB’s de-
mands, but was also very well accepted
internationally for having the best
cost-benefit ratio in the market at the
time (EMBRAER, 2021).
10. The EMB 326 Xavante is a military
training jet designed by the two Italian
companies and assembled in Brazil
through a license agreement signed in
1970. Embraer produced a total of 182
units of the model, of which 167 went
to FAB, 9 to Paraguay and 6 to Togo
(EMBRAER, 2021).
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estudos internacionais • Belo Horizonte, ISSN 2317-773X, v. 10, n. 4, (nov. 2022), p. 55-71
was signed with American Northrop for the production of F-5 compo-
nents, enhancing Embraer’s knowledge on technologies of advanced alu-
minum-magnesium alloy production, welding between metals, and man-
ufacturing of aluminum cores using numerical control machines (Coelho
Netto, 2005). Then, in 1974, Embraer signed a contract with American
Piper for the development, production, and marketing of light aircraft, al-
lowing it to access knowledge on aircraft marketing and sales, after-sales
support and technical assistance, and technological know-how for the
manufacture of acrylic and berglass parts (Bernardes, 2005).
In 1979, expanding its global activities beyond the modalities listed
above, Embraer Aircraft Company (EAC) was created in Dania, Florida,
and in 1983 Embraer Aviation International (EAI) was founded in Paris,
with the goal of promoting sales and providing support to customers in
Europe, the Middle East, and Africa (Embraer, 2021).
In 1980, a new agreement was signed with Aermacchi to manufac-
ture Embraer’s rst ghter jet, the AMX,11 bringing to the latter’s techno-
logical knowledge on composite material, anionic systems, and software
for military aviation. Furthermore, this partnership facilitated the incor-
poration of know-how on project management, systems integration, and
technical industrial cooperation agreements on wing conformation and
manufacturing of machined parts in ve axes (Cavagnari, 1993).
In 1990, going beyond the partnerships restricted to developed
countries, Embraer partnered with Fábrica Argentina de Material Aeroespa-
cial (FAMA) to manufacture an innovative project, the CBA,12 which did
not have the expected adherence in the market, but allowed Embraer to
accumulate knowledge in project risk sharing (Silva, 1998). South-South
partnerships continued to advance in the 2000s, with the opening of Em-
braer oces in China and Singapore (2000).
In 2004, an unprecedented step in Embraer’s international aairs
was taken with the purchase of Indústria Aeronáutica de Portugal (OGMA),
intensifying its presence in Europe, besides beneting the former with
the latter’s experience in numerous aerospace operations (Embraer, 2021).
Partnerships with Embraer’s traditional partner, the US, have also
continued and diversied. In 2011, Embraer’s rst aircraft assembly plant
was founded at Melbourne International Airport in Florida, while in 2013
assembly facilities were opened at Jacksonville International Airport (also
in Florida). In 2017 an Embraer innovation team was set up in Silicon Val-
ley and Boston, which, in partnership with startups, investors, academia,
and corporations, aims to work on opportunities for the air transport
business (Embraer, 2021).
The second half of the 21st century was also marked by greater
media exposure of international negotiations involving Embraer, partic-
ularly those conducted under the Ministry of Defense’s FX-2 Program
(Reim, 2021), which, in 2013, resulted in a partnership with the Swedish
company SAAB (Brustolin, Pedone, and Martins, 2018).
In February 2019, a joint venture was established between Boeing
and Embraer. Under the terms of this joint venture, Boeing would pur-
chase an 80% stake in Embraer’s commercial aircraft division. The deal
was approved by Embraer’s shareholders and the Brazilian government
11. Designed to meet the demands of
the Italian Air Force, the manufacture
of the first fighter jet in Embraer’s
history was the result of an association
between Aermacchi and Embraer. The
Brazilian company contributed 1/3
of the costs and was responsible for
sections of the wings, empennage, and
the fatigue tests of the structure. Aer-
macchi, on the other hand, bore 2/3 of
the costs, contributing to the fuselage,
the onboard systems, and the static and
armament tests (Embraer, 2021).
12. Jet-performance turboprop for
regional flights (Embraer, 2021).
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Maurílio Daros, Iara Costa Leite, Vitelio Marcos Brustolin The Interplay Between Internaonal Relaons and Science, Technology and Innovaon:
An Analysis of Embraer’s Internaonal Partnerships
(which owns a golden share of Embraer). However, in April 2020, Boeing
terminated the joint venture. Embraer claims that the nancial impact
of the temporary ight ban of the Boeing 737 MAX contributed to Boe-
ing’s withdrawal. For its part, Boeing claims that Embraer has not com-
plied with the Master Transaction Agreement (MTA). The crisis caused
by Covid-19 may also have made it dicult to conclude the joint venture.
Currently the case is going through an arbitration dispute and may even
be sent to a New York court (Brustolin, 2020).
International partnerships involving Embraer, which, as seen
above, began even before the company was created and laid the foun-
dations for much of its development, have undoubtedly contributed to
the technological level achieved by Embraer. Knowledge ows in multi-
ple levels and modalities allowed Embraer to become a major worldwide
competitor in the sector. Today, the company has 18,000 employees, has
delivered more than 8,000 aircrafts, is the world’s third largest manufac-
turer of commercial jets and the world leader in the up-to-130-seat cate-
gory, and counts with industrial plants, distribution centers, and oces in
the Americas, Africa, Asia and Europe (Embraer, 2021).
We believe it is not possible to adequately understand the trajectory
of the technological level reached by Embraer, including its achievements
and challenges, without understanding the role played by states in inter-
national knowledge ows. The role of state actors is not only restricted to
the fact that some of the partners involved are public organizations, but
also relates to state incentives to partnerships, either by placing them as
priorities for national development and allocating the necessary resourc-
es to realize them, or by overseeing the type of knowledge that would
be shared in view of security or economic interests. Therefore, literature
that emphasizes the role of the Brazilian state, particularly within the
scope of military partnerships in international negotiations designed to
aid technological acquisition, as in the case of the FX Program and osets
(Brustolin, Oliveira, and Senna, 2016), can be complemented with reec-
tions on the role of the states that host Embraer’s partner companies.
In the literature of International Relations there are important
debates that could shed light on this question. For example, on the one
hand we have the work of Mastanduno (1991), who highlights the pre-
dominance of security interests in knowledge ows from the US to Japan
during the Cold War in the case of the FSX Agreement. Such ows would
have been supported by the American government, to the detriment of
the preference of American companies (which opposed it), in a context
marked by the salience of the Soviet threat. Moravsick (1992), on the other
hand, concludes that the interests of companies were crucial in dening
the implementation of military technology transfer agreements among
Europeans between 1975 and 1985. If a company is already a reference
in the export of a certain technology, it will not get involved or support
state initiatives that encourage technology transfer in the eld. On the
contrary, if it is not yet a reference, companies may support such transfer
in the expectation that it can provide access to knowledge accumulated
by other companies operating in the same sector. One may also wonder
to what extent a reference company would also agree to share a certain
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estudos internacionais • Belo Horizonte, ISSN 2317-773X, v. 10, n. 4, (nov. 2022), p. 55-71
technology with partners that do not accumulate the specic demanded
tacit knowledge to really learn from it, as a means to fulll other purpos-
es, economic or political.
Contributions as the ones mentioned above are aligned with main-
stream perspectives on International Political Economy, according to
which “international politics could not be fully understood or analyzed
without paying attention to international business, and conversely, that
international business and management could not be fully understood
without paying attention to international and domestic politics” (Strange,
1996). Nevertheless, as we will see in the next section, the few studies
mapped in our search for literature on international STI partnerships in-
volving Embraer (following the criteria specied in the former section)
are backed by concepts and theories that tend to focus only on one of
the vertices of triangular diplomacy that aect the political economy of
countries, namely, business-company relations, failing to consider busi-
ness-state and state-state relations.
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
As seen in the previous section, Embraer’s international interac-
tions throughout its trajectory have impacted its technological develop-
ment. Nevertheless, as was shown in the rst section, very few works on
Embraer consider the international aspect and, of the few that do, a small
number addresses the interplay between international relations and STI.
This section aims at analyzing a couple of qualitative features of
the retrieved material, starting with recurring concepts that back analysis
on international knowledge ows involving Embraer (Box 1).
Box 1 – Recurrent concepts mobilized by the retrieved literature
Concept Author Area Definition
Strategic
Alliance
Bedaque Junior
(2006)
Administration “Gulati (1998) presents a broad and generic definition of alliance when
considering that they are voluntary agreements between companies
that involve exchange, sharing or co-development of products, techno-
logies and services… (…). According to Hitt et alii (2003:362) ‘strate-
gic alliances are partnerships between firms at which their essential
resources, capacities and competencies are combined to pursue mutual
interests when projecting, manufacturing and distributing goods and
services.” (p. 44-45)
Ferreira (2010) Engineering “A strategic alliance is formed, according to Lorange and Roos (1996),
when partners form a new venture, and exhibits, as a main feature,
the intention to move each participant toward a common long-term
strategic goal, resulting in strengthening partners’ competitive posi-
tions.” (p. 39-40)
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Maurílio Daros, Iara Costa Leite, Vitelio Marcos Brustolin The Interplay Between Internaonal Relaons and Science, Technology and Innovaon:
An Analysis of Embraer’s Internaonal Partnerships
Strategic
Alliance
Coelho Netto
(2005)
Administration “(…) Pinho (1998) argues [that] some authors tend to agree on some
aspects and characteristics that an alliance must possess (...) 1. it is an
agreement, arrangement, association, coalition or union with specific
aims, which gathers specific aspects of two or more companies (...); 2.
that union’s foundation is a business partnership, which allows each
of the partners to create and maintain competitive advantage through
mutual benefit of technology, product, skill or any other type of resource
exchange; 3. Strategic alliances have four attributes, necessarily and
sufficiently: (...) companies remain independent after the alliance for-
mation; partners share control over the performance of tasks associated
with the partnership and the benefits resulting from them; partners
contribute continuously to the alliance; and partners generate a mutual
dependence relationship, that is, projects are indivisible.” (p. 24-25)
Vital (2010) Engineering “Fusco and Sacomano (2009) state that strategic alliances between
partner companies are a viable way out of a volatile environment of
business concentration. They define strategic alliances as a means
for companies from the same industrial sector to compete on a global
scale, while preserving their independence.” (p. 36-37)
Open Innovation Bedaque Junior
(2006)
Administration “a new paradigm, which emerged in the 1990s, determining a new
logic, moving from a closed model of innovation (proprietary, internal
and vertically integrated) to an open, dynamic and systemic one, which
interacts with the external environment and enables sustained innova-
tion.” (p. 84)
Cedalon; Sbragia
(2020)
Administration “OI is based on the ability to recognize externally available knowledge
that can be assimilated and applied commercially.” (p. 71)
Source: Produced by the authors
The box above shows that recurring concepts in the retrieved lit-
erature that focus on international knowledge ows involving Embraer
are concentrated in business analysis. International dynamics are not ad-
dressed specically, but as part of alliances, networks and other process-
es that can characterize partnerships involving companies located in the
same country or not. Furthermore, in general conceptual frameworks do
not incorporate dynamics that are not related to the business logic per se.
For instance, the role of states in facilitating or hindering transnational
knowledge ows in the aeronautic sector is usually not conceptually ac-
counted for,13 though such role is mentioned when authors describe how
international partnerships involving Embraer happened – for instance,
in negotiating oset agreements (Coelho Netto, 2005). It should be noted
that our ndings do not represent a criticism to the analyzed authors,
who naturally work with concepts from their respective elds. What is
striking, as already noted, is the lack of studies from International Rela-
tions on international STI partnerships involving Embraer, which could
potentially complement the retrieved literature by also focusing on busi-
ness-state and state-state analysis.
A second aspect that has been observed during the qualitative anal-
ysis of the retrieved literature on Embraer was the evaluation of inter-
national partnerships involving knowledge ows according to their axis
(South-South or North-South). Do authors consider that South-South part-
nerships are more eective from the point of view of Embraer or the op-
posite? Box 2 summarizes the reviewed literature views on the impact of
international partnerships in granting Embraer access to new knowledge.
13. It must be noted that exceptions
include works that rely in innovation
system approaches (Luz; Minari; Santos,
2010; Marques, 2011), where the role of
of all innovation system actors, includ-
ing the government, is accounted for.
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estudos internacionais • Belo Horizonte, ISSN 2317-773X, v. 10, n. 4, (nov. 2022), p. 55-71
Box 2 – Evaluation of Embraer’s international partnerships
Initiative (year) Knowledge accessed or developed by
Embraer (Coelho Netto, 2005)
Partner
Country
Evaluation of partnership in
terms of knowledge benefits
to Embraer
EMB-326 Xavante project with
Aermacchi – license acquisition for
MB-326 manufacturing (1971)
Technical improvement for large scale
production (mainly project and fixture
confection and manufacturing solutions);
experience in technical guide elaboration;
know-how in integration technology and
jet engine testing.
Italy Positive (Coelho Netto, 2005;
Marques, 2011; Vital, 2010)
Agreement with Northrop for
production of F-5 military aircraft
components (including vertical warp)
(1973)
Know-how composite material
technology; know-how in aluminium-
magnesium advanced alloy cutting
technology; know-how in using numerical
control machines; know-how in metal-
metal welding technology; know-how in
aluminium honeycomb manufacturing.
US Positive (Coelho Netto, 2005;
Vital, 2010)
License agreement with Piper to
manufacture six types of light aircraft
in Brazil: EMB 710 Carioca, EMB 711
Corisco, EMB 720 Minuano, EMB 721
Sertanejo, EMB 810 Seneca II e EMB
820 Navajo (1974)
Know-how in aircraft trade (marketing
and sales); know-how in after-sales
support and technical assistance;
technological know-how to manufacture
acrylic pieces and glass fiber.
US Positive (Coelho Netto, 2005;
Lima, 2017; Marques, 2011)
Offset agreement with Sikorsky
Aircraft for chemical machining
technology transfer (1970s)
Know-how in chemical machining
technology.
US Positive (Coelho Netto, 2005)
AMX project with Aeritalia and
Aermacchi 1985)
Know-how in composite material
technology; know-how in avionics
systems and military aircraft softwares;
know-how in project management,
system integration and industrial
cooperation agreements; know-how in
wing shaping techniques; know-how in
manufacturing five-axis machined parts.
Italy Positive (Coelho Netto, 2005;
Lima, 2017; Vital, 2010)
Project CBA-123 Vector, with FMA
(1988)
Know-how in risk-sharing project. Argentina Positive (Coelho Netto, 2005;
Marques, 2011)
Agreement with McDonnell Douglas
for production of carbon fiber flaps for
the MD-11 aircraft (1992)
Know-how in composite material
technology; know-how in production
norms and procedures; know-how in
project management, system integration
and industrial cooperation agreements;
know-how in risk-sharing project.
US Positive (Coelho Netto, 2005)
Contract with Boeing for production of
parts requiring fine mechanics for the
Boeing 747 and 767 aircrafts (1990)
Know-how in fine mechanics technology;
know-how in production norms and
procedures.
US Positive (Coelho Netto, 2005)
Contract with Boeing to supply wing
tips and dorsal fins assemblies to
Boeing 777 aircraft (1991)
Know-how in production norms and
procedures.
US Positive (Coelho Netto, 2005)
Risk-sharing agreement for the
development of ERJ-145 family project,
with Gamesa, Sonaca, ENAer and C&D
Interiors (1993)
Know-how in risk-sharing project
management; know-how in virtual project
development (use of CATIA software).
Spain,
Belgium,
Chile, US
Positive (Coelho Netto,
2005; Bedaque Junior, 2006;
Ferreira, 2010)
67
Maurílio Daros, Iara Costa Leite, Vitelio Marcos Brustolin The Interplay Between Internaonal Relaons and Science, Technology and Innovaon:
An Analysis of Embraer’s Internaonal Partnerships
Production of the fuel system and
landing gear for the Sikorsky S-92
Helibus helicopter as part of a risk-
sharing project that also involved
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Gamesa
and Jingdezhen Helicopter Group (1995)
Know-how in advanced materials (Invar
alloy); know-how in project virtual
development (use of CATIA software).
US, Japan,
Spain, China
Positive (Coelho Netto, 2005)
ERJ-170/190 family project, with
Parker Aerospace, Hamilton
Sundstrand, General Electric Aircraft
Engines, Latécoère, Gamesa, Liebherr,
Sonaca, C&D Aerospace, Kawasaki
Heavy Industries, Honeywell, and
Parker Hannifin (1999)
Know-how in risk-sharing project
management; execution of technical
harmonization during the aircraft project
(through the Virtual Reality Center –
CRV); execution of production following
the just-in-time model.
US, France,
Spain,
Germany,
Belgium,
Japan,
Positive (Bedaque Junior,
2006; Coelho Netto, 2005;
OLIVEIRA, 2009)
Offset agreement with Elbit for the
remodeling of FAB F-5 military aircraft
(2000)
It is likely that Embraer is acquiring some
know-how in avionics development, but
that information was not confirmed as
that agreement was confidential.
Israel No evaluation made since it
was an ongoing partnership
when author published his
work (Coelho Netto, 2005)
Contract for the production of ERJ-145
in China, with AVIC II (2002)
Not identified. China Uncertain - no learning to
Embraer related to technology
development has been
identified by the author, but
partnership was still ongoing
when his work was published
(Coelho Netto, 2005)
Gripen project with SAAB AB (2013) N/A Sweden Positive (Cedalon; Sbragia,
2020)
Source: Produced by the authors
The obvious point that can be made after going over the box above
is that there is no correlation between the axis of international partner-
ships involving Embraer (North-South or South-South) and the evalua-
tions in terms of knowledge benets to Embraer. In fact, most of interna-
tional partnerships Embraer has taken part of are seen as having brought
direct or indirect knowledge gains to the company. Although many em-
phasize that South-South STI partnerships would be more eective due
to a greater similarity between partners (Troyjo, 2003), a partnership
with China, a Southern country, has not been identied as having pro-
duced knowledge gains to Embraer. Though the latter were not part of
Embraer’s aims with that partnership, which targeted access to the Chi-
nese market (something that has also been negatively evaluated), Coel-
ho Netto (2005) expresses some concern with “the risk that the Chinese
company absorbs Brazilian technology, becoming a potential competitor
in the future…”. However, concerns with knowledge transfers to com-
petitors as a risk involved in international partnerships can also be found
in analysis on North-South partnerships. For instance, Bedaque Junior
(2006) quotes Bernardes (1998) on the ERJ 145 risk-partnership program,
at which “Embraer has transferred technology, and will possibly suer
those rms’ competitiveness in the future…”.
Still, an eventual correlation between international partnerships
and knowledge loss is not part of the central concerns found in the re-
trieved literature. Instead, most of it adopts a positive stance towards in-
ternational partnerships involving Embraer throughout its history. Ac-
68
estudos internacionais • Belo Horizonte, ISSN 2317-773X, v. 10, n. 4, (nov. 2022), p. 55-71
cess to knowledge produced outside the company is seen as positive from
the point of view of Embraer’s technological progress, converging with
the whole literature on the factors that inuence innovation (Cassiolato;
Lastres, 2005). Even projects that failed from the commercial point of
view, such as the AMX (with Italy) and CBA 123 (with Argentina), both
“imposed” to Embraer by the Brazilian government (Coelho Netto,
2005), are evaluated as positive in terms of knowledge accumulated to
future well-succeed projects from the point of view of sales, implement-
ed after Embraer’s privatization. Nevertheless, Araújo (2017) and Lima
(2017) calibrate such optimistic views when pointing to Embraer’s grow-
ing technological dependency in that context, whereas Marques (2011)
shows that dependency has been part of the whole trajectory of Embrapa,
as the majority of higher value added parts suppliers have continuously
been foreign ones.
CONCLUSION
This article undertook a meta-analysis on the interplay between
STI and international relations in the case of Embraer. Our major nding
was that international STI partnerships involving Embraer are analyzed
by business management, economics and engineering professionals. For
this reason, analysis of the international element is based on theoretical
concepts that do not take into account specicities that characterize in-
ternational knowledge ows. The retrieved literature conceptual back-
ground tends to focus on rm-to-rm relations, and not the internation-
al economic political context in which partnerships involving Embraer
were designed and implemented.
International knowledge ows involving societal actors (such as
companies and laboratories) can be promoted or hindered by states, and
therefore political domestic, bilateral, and structural aspects should be
accounted for. For instance, one cannot ignore that the US government
directly supported knowledge ows from the US to Brazil during the
Cold War, as it did in the case of the partnership between ITA and the
University of Michigan in the 1960s. At that time, Brazilian eorts to de-
velop nuclear technology already concerned US authorities, in a context
marked by the latter’s support of knowledge ows in areas that would
not endanger US security, but that would still confer a symbolic status to
other countries’ technological capacities. This was the case, for instance,
of Germany (Krige, 2014), India (Doel; Harper, 2006), and, likely, Brazil.
As such, supporting knowledge ows that later contributed to the devel-
opment of the aeronautic industry in Brazil might have been part of the
US positive disarmament strategy.
Therefore, for future work we recommend that knowledge ows
involving Embraer are analyzed considering the role that might have
been played by the states of origin of its partner companies. In doing so,
one should bear in mind that states can also play a central role in with-
holding knowledge, something that may have prevented Embraer from
addressing key technological challenges.
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Maurílio Daros, Iara Costa Leite, Vitelio Marcos Brustolin The Interplay Between Internaonal Relaons and Science, Technology and Innovaon:
An Analysis of Embraer’s Internaonal Partnerships
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