“Nosso mais valioso recurso”: mensurando o impacto dos programas de intercâmbio estadunidenses sobre o comportamento internacional de outros Estados
Palavras-chave:
Comportamento internacional, Assembleia Geral das Nações Unidas, Socialização de chefes de Estado, Intercâmbios educacionais
Resumo
O artigo testa a hipótese de que países tendem a apresentar um comportamento internacional mais favorável em relação aos Estados Unidos quando seus chefes de Estado tiveram contato prévio com instituições de ensino estadunidenses. Foi feito um levantamento prosopográfico dos chefes de Estado dos países que compõem o Grupo Latino-Americano e Caribenho na Organização das Nações Unidas (GRULAC-ONU), observando especificamente quais destes tiveram contato com instituições de ensino estadunidenses. Para medir o posicionamento em relação aos EUA, foi adotada como variável proxy os padrões de votação desses Estados na Assembleia Geral da ONU, comparados aos padrões de votação estadunidenses. Por se tratarem de duas variáveis dicotômicas, foi calculado o Coeficiente de Associação de Yule para verificar a força da relação entre elas. Todas as variações do teste retornaram uma associação positiva baixa, flutuando entre 0,108 e 0,202. Os resultados forneceram evidências que corroboram com a hipótese de que o contato prévio com instituições de ensino estadunidenses por parte de chefes de Estado produz uma postura mais positiva dessas nações em relação aos EUA.
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Referências
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ATKINSON, C. Does Soft Power Matter? A Comparative Analysis of Student Exchange Programs 1980-“2006. Foreign Policy Analysis, v. 6, n. 1, p. 1–22, 2010.
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BAILEY, M. A.; STREZHNEV, A.; VOETEN, E. Estimating Dynamic State Preferences from United Nations Voting Data. p. 1–27, 2015.
BECK, P. A.; JENNINGS, M. K. Family Traditions, Political Periods, and the Development of Partisan Orientations. Journal of Politics, v. 53, p. 742–763, 1991.
BELLIN, E. Reconsidering the Robustness of Authoritarianismin the Middle East. Comparative Politic, v. 44, n. 2, p. 127–149, 2012.
BENNIS, P. The United Nations and Palestine: partition and its aftermath—UN stance on Palestine’s displacement by creation of Israel. Arab Studies Quarterly, v. 19, n. 3, p. 47–77, 1997.
BEYERS, J. Conceptual and methodological challenges in the study of European socialization. Journal of European Public Policy, v. 17, n. 6, p. 909–920, 2010.
CAMPBELL, A. K. UN Voting and Alliance Cohesion. Millennium: Journal of International Studies, v. 1, n. 2, p. 4–16, 1971.
CERVI, E. U. Manual de Métodos Quantitativos para iniciantes em Ciência Política - Volume 2. Curitiba: CPOP, 2019.
CHAYES, A.; CHAYES, A. H. The New Sovereignty: Compliance with International Regulatory Agreements. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996.
CHECKEL, J. T. International institutions and socialization in Europe: Introduction and framework. International Organization, v. 59, n. 4, p. 801–826, 2005.
CIALDINI, R. Compliance Principles of Compliance Professionals: Psychologists of Necessity. In: ZANNA, M. P.; OLSON, J. M.; HERMAN, C. P. (Eds.). Social Influence: The Ontario Symposium, vol. 5. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1987. p. 165–184.
COOPER, J.; BLACKMAN, S. F.; KELLER, K. T. The science of attitudes. New York: Routledge, 2016.
COPE, J. A. International Military Education and Training: An Assessment. Washington, DC: National Defense University, Institute for National Strategic Studies, 1995.
DAVIS, J. A. Levantamento de Dados em Sociologia: uma análise estatística elementar. Rio de Janeiro: Zahar Editores, 1976.
DIMITROVA, A.; PRIDHAM, G. International actors and democracy promotion in central and eastern Europe: the integration model and its limits. Democratization, v. 11, n. 5, p. 91–112, 2004.
DREHER, A.; NUNNENKAMP, P.; THIELE, R. Does US aid buy UN general assembly votes? A disaggregated analysis. Public Choice, v. 136, n. 1–2, p. 139–164, 2008.
DREHER, A.; STURM, J. E. Do IMF and World Bank Influence Voting in the UN General Assembly? Thurgau Institute of Economics. Foreign Affairs, n. December 2004, p. 1–40, 2006.
FREYBURG, T. Transgovernmental networks as catalysts for democratic change? eu functional cooperation with arab authoritarian regimes and socialization of involved state officials into democratic governance. Democratization, v. 18, n. 4, p. 1001–1025, 2011.
FREYBURG, T. Transgovernmental Networks as an Apprenticeship in Democracy? Socialization into Democratic Governance through Cross-national Activities. International Studies Quarterly, v. 59, n. 1, p. 59–72, 2015.
GIFT, T.; KRCMARIC, D. Who Democratizes? Western-educated Leaders and Regime Transitions. Journal of Conflict Resolution, v. 61, n. 3, p. 671–701, 2017.
GREENHILL, B. The Company You Keep: InternationalSocialization and the Diffusion of HumanRights Norms. International Studies Quarterly, v. 54, p. 127–145, 2010.
HOLLOWAY, S. Forty Years of United Nations General Assembly Voting. Canadian Journal of Political Science, v. 23, n. 02, p. 279, 2009.
JOHNSTON, A. I. Treating international institutions as social environments. International Studies Quarterly, v. 45, n. 4, p. 487–515, 2001.
KEGLEY JR., C. W.; HOOK, S. J. U.S. foreign aid and U.N. voting: did Reagan’s linkage strategy buy defence or defiance? International Studies Quarterly, n. 35, p. 295–312, 1991.
KEGLEY JR., C. W.; MCGOWAN, P. J. The Political Economy of Foreign Policy. Beverly Hills: SAGE Publications, 1981.
KELLEY, J. International Actors on the Domestic Scene: Membership Conditionality and Socialization byInternational Institutions. International Organization, v. 58, n. 3, p. 425–457, 2004.
KIM, S. Y.; RUSSETT, B. The new politics of voting alignments in the United Nations General Assembly. International Organization, v. 50, n. 04, p. 629, 1996.
LOMER, S. Soft power as a policy rationale for international education in the UK: a critical analysis. Higher Education, v. 74, n. 4, p. 581–598, 2017.
MILLER, A. H. Promoting Democratic Values in Transitional Societies through Foreign Aid. Midwest Political Science Association Annual Meeting. Chicago: 2006
MORAVCSIK, A. Explaining International Human Rights Regimes: Liberal Theory and Western Europe. European Journal of International Relations1, v. 1, p. 157–190, 1995.
NAFSA. In America’s Interest: Welcoming International Students, 2003. Disponível em:. Acesso em: 4 mar. 2020
NAPIER, R. W.; GERSHENFELD, M. K. Groups: Theory and Experience. 4th Ed. ed. Boston: Hough- ton Mifflin, 1987.
NISBETT, R. E.; COHEN, D. Culture of Honor: The Psychology of Violence in the South. Boulder: Westview Press, 1996.
NOVELLI, D. H.; PEREIRA, A. E. The Role of International Institutions in Promoting Democracy: a Brief Literature Review of Recent Studies (2010-2019). Mural Internacional, v. 11, 2020.
NYE, J. S. Soft Power: The Means to Sucess in World Politics. Cambridge: Public Affairs, 2004.
NYE, J. S. Public diplomacy and soft power. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, v. 616, n. 1, p. 94–109, 2008.
PERLOFF, R. M. The Dynamics of Persuasion - Communication and Attitudes in the 21st Century. 6th Editio ed. New York: Routledge, 2017.
PEVEHOUSE, J. C. Democracy from the Outside-In? International Organizations and Democratization. International Organization, v. 56, n. 3, p. 515–549, 2002a.
PEVEHOUSE, J. C. With a Little Help from My Friends? Regional Organizations and the Consolidation of Democracy. American Journal of Political Science, v. 46, n. 3, p. 611–626, 2002b.
PEVEHOUSE, J. C. Democracy from Above - Regional Organizations and Democratization. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
POTRAFKE, N. Does government ideology influence political alignment with the U . S .? An empirical analysis of voting in the UN General Assembly. Review of International Organizations, v. 4, p. 245–268, 2009.
POWELL, C. L. Statement on International Education Week 2001, 2001. Disponível em:. Acesso em: 4 mar. 2020
RICHMOND, Y. Cultural Exchange and the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003.
RUBY, T. Z.; GIBLER, D. US professional military education and democratization abroad. European Journal of International Relations, v. 16, n. 3, p. 339–364, 2010.
SELLTIZ, C. et al. Attitudes and Social Relations of Foreign Students in the United States. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1963.
STRYKER, S.; STATHAM, A. Symbolic Interaction and Role Theory. In: LINDZEY, G.; ARONSON, E. (Eds.). . The Handbook of Social Psychology. New York: Random House, 1985. p. 311–378.
SUSSKIND, L. Environmental Diplomacy: Negotiating More Effective Global Agreements. London: Oxford University Press, 1994.
THACKER, S. C. The high politics of IMF lending. World Politics, n. 52, p. 38–75, 1999.
TURNER, J. C. Rediscovering the Social Group. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987.
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF STATE. Voting Practices in the United Nations 2017 - Report to Congress Submitted Pursuant to Public Laws 101-246 and 108-447. Disponível em:. Acesso em: 3 abr. 2020.
WANG, X.-L. Cultural Mediators or Marginal Persons? Geographical Review, v. 81, p. 292–303, 1991.
WATSON, J.; LIPPITT, R. Cross-Cultural Experience as a Source of Attitude Change. Journal of Conflict Resolution, v. 2, p. 61–66, 1958.
WILSON, E. C.; BONILLA, F. Evaluating Exchange of Persons Programs. The Public Opinion Quarterly, v. 19, n. 20–30, 1955.
WITTKOPF, E. R. Foreign Aid and United Nations Votes: A Comparative Study. American Political Science Review, v. 67, n. 03, p. 868–888, 1973.
WOJCIUK, A.; MICHAŁEK, M.; STORMOWSKA, M. Education as a source and tool of soft power in international relations. European Political Science, v. 14, n. 3, p. 298–317, 2015.
YOUNG, O. The Effectiveness of International Institutions: Hard Cases and Critical Variables. In: ROSENAU, J. N.; CZEMPIEL, E. O. (Eds.). . Governance Without Government: Order and Change in World Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. p. 160–194.
YULE, G. U.; KENDALL, M. G. An introduction to the theory of statistics. London: Charles Griffin, 1937.
ATKINSON, C. Constructivist Implications of Material Power: Military Engagement and the Socialization of States 1972–2000. International Studies Quarterly, v. 50, p. 509–537, 2006.
ATKINSON, C. Does Soft Power Matter? A Comparative Analysis of Student Exchange Programs 1980-“2006. Foreign Policy Analysis, v. 6, n. 1, p. 1–22, 2010.
BAILEY, M. A.; STREZHNEV, A.; VOETEN, E. United Nations General Assembly Voting Data. Harvard Database, v. 18, 2009.
BAILEY, M. A.; STREZHNEV, A.; VOETEN, E. Estimating Dynamic State Preferences from United Nations Voting Data. p. 1–27, 2015.
BECK, P. A.; JENNINGS, M. K. Family Traditions, Political Periods, and the Development of Partisan Orientations. Journal of Politics, v. 53, p. 742–763, 1991.
BELLIN, E. Reconsidering the Robustness of Authoritarianismin the Middle East. Comparative Politic, v. 44, n. 2, p. 127–149, 2012.
BENNIS, P. The United Nations and Palestine: partition and its aftermath—UN stance on Palestine’s displacement by creation of Israel. Arab Studies Quarterly, v. 19, n. 3, p. 47–77, 1997.
BEYERS, J. Conceptual and methodological challenges in the study of European socialization. Journal of European Public Policy, v. 17, n. 6, p. 909–920, 2010.
CAMPBELL, A. K. UN Voting and Alliance Cohesion. Millennium: Journal of International Studies, v. 1, n. 2, p. 4–16, 1971.
CERVI, E. U. Manual de Métodos Quantitativos para iniciantes em Ciência Política - Volume 2. Curitiba: CPOP, 2019.
CHAYES, A.; CHAYES, A. H. The New Sovereignty: Compliance with International Regulatory Agreements. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996.
CHECKEL, J. T. International institutions and socialization in Europe: Introduction and framework. International Organization, v. 59, n. 4, p. 801–826, 2005.
CIALDINI, R. Compliance Principles of Compliance Professionals: Psychologists of Necessity. In: ZANNA, M. P.; OLSON, J. M.; HERMAN, C. P. (Eds.). Social Influence: The Ontario Symposium, vol. 5. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1987. p. 165–184.
COOPER, J.; BLACKMAN, S. F.; KELLER, K. T. The science of attitudes. New York: Routledge, 2016.
COPE, J. A. International Military Education and Training: An Assessment. Washington, DC: National Defense University, Institute for National Strategic Studies, 1995.
DAVIS, J. A. Levantamento de Dados em Sociologia: uma análise estatística elementar. Rio de Janeiro: Zahar Editores, 1976.
DIMITROVA, A.; PRIDHAM, G. International actors and democracy promotion in central and eastern Europe: the integration model and its limits. Democratization, v. 11, n. 5, p. 91–112, 2004.
DREHER, A.; NUNNENKAMP, P.; THIELE, R. Does US aid buy UN general assembly votes? A disaggregated analysis. Public Choice, v. 136, n. 1–2, p. 139–164, 2008.
DREHER, A.; STURM, J. E. Do IMF and World Bank Influence Voting in the UN General Assembly? Thurgau Institute of Economics. Foreign Affairs, n. December 2004, p. 1–40, 2006.
FREYBURG, T. Transgovernmental networks as catalysts for democratic change? eu functional cooperation with arab authoritarian regimes and socialization of involved state officials into democratic governance. Democratization, v. 18, n. 4, p. 1001–1025, 2011.
FREYBURG, T. Transgovernmental Networks as an Apprenticeship in Democracy? Socialization into Democratic Governance through Cross-national Activities. International Studies Quarterly, v. 59, n. 1, p. 59–72, 2015.
GIFT, T.; KRCMARIC, D. Who Democratizes? Western-educated Leaders and Regime Transitions. Journal of Conflict Resolution, v. 61, n. 3, p. 671–701, 2017.
GREENHILL, B. The Company You Keep: InternationalSocialization and the Diffusion of HumanRights Norms. International Studies Quarterly, v. 54, p. 127–145, 2010.
HOLLOWAY, S. Forty Years of United Nations General Assembly Voting. Canadian Journal of Political Science, v. 23, n. 02, p. 279, 2009.
JOHNSTON, A. I. Treating international institutions as social environments. International Studies Quarterly, v. 45, n. 4, p. 487–515, 2001.
KEGLEY JR., C. W.; HOOK, S. J. U.S. foreign aid and U.N. voting: did Reagan’s linkage strategy buy defence or defiance? International Studies Quarterly, n. 35, p. 295–312, 1991.
KEGLEY JR., C. W.; MCGOWAN, P. J. The Political Economy of Foreign Policy. Beverly Hills: SAGE Publications, 1981.
KELLEY, J. International Actors on the Domestic Scene: Membership Conditionality and Socialization byInternational Institutions. International Organization, v. 58, n. 3, p. 425–457, 2004.
KIM, S. Y.; RUSSETT, B. The new politics of voting alignments in the United Nations General Assembly. International Organization, v. 50, n. 04, p. 629, 1996.
LOMER, S. Soft power as a policy rationale for international education in the UK: a critical analysis. Higher Education, v. 74, n. 4, p. 581–598, 2017.
MILLER, A. H. Promoting Democratic Values in Transitional Societies through Foreign Aid. Midwest Political Science Association Annual Meeting. Chicago: 2006
MORAVCSIK, A. Explaining International Human Rights Regimes: Liberal Theory and Western Europe. European Journal of International Relations1, v. 1, p. 157–190, 1995.
NAFSA. In America’s Interest: Welcoming International Students, 2003. Disponível em:
NAPIER, R. W.; GERSHENFELD, M. K. Groups: Theory and Experience. 4th Ed. ed. Boston: Hough- ton Mifflin, 1987.
NISBETT, R. E.; COHEN, D. Culture of Honor: The Psychology of Violence in the South. Boulder: Westview Press, 1996.
NOVELLI, D. H.; PEREIRA, A. E. The Role of International Institutions in Promoting Democracy: a Brief Literature Review of Recent Studies (2010-2019). Mural Internacional, v. 11, 2020.
NYE, J. S. Soft Power: The Means to Sucess in World Politics. Cambridge: Public Affairs, 2004.
NYE, J. S. Public diplomacy and soft power. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, v. 616, n. 1, p. 94–109, 2008.
PERLOFF, R. M. The Dynamics of Persuasion - Communication and Attitudes in the 21st Century. 6th Editio ed. New York: Routledge, 2017.
PEVEHOUSE, J. C. Democracy from the Outside-In? International Organizations and Democratization. International Organization, v. 56, n. 3, p. 515–549, 2002a.
PEVEHOUSE, J. C. With a Little Help from My Friends? Regional Organizations and the Consolidation of Democracy. American Journal of Political Science, v. 46, n. 3, p. 611–626, 2002b.
PEVEHOUSE, J. C. Democracy from Above - Regional Organizations and Democratization. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
POTRAFKE, N. Does government ideology influence political alignment with the U . S .? An empirical analysis of voting in the UN General Assembly. Review of International Organizations, v. 4, p. 245–268, 2009.
POWELL, C. L. Statement on International Education Week 2001, 2001. Disponível em:
RICHMOND, Y. Cultural Exchange and the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003.
RUBY, T. Z.; GIBLER, D. US professional military education and democratization abroad. European Journal of International Relations, v. 16, n. 3, p. 339–364, 2010.
SELLTIZ, C. et al. Attitudes and Social Relations of Foreign Students in the United States. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1963.
STRYKER, S.; STATHAM, A. Symbolic Interaction and Role Theory. In: LINDZEY, G.; ARONSON, E. (Eds.). . The Handbook of Social Psychology. New York: Random House, 1985. p. 311–378.
SUSSKIND, L. Environmental Diplomacy: Negotiating More Effective Global Agreements. London: Oxford University Press, 1994.
THACKER, S. C. The high politics of IMF lending. World Politics, n. 52, p. 38–75, 1999.
TURNER, J. C. Rediscovering the Social Group. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987.
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF STATE. Voting Practices in the United Nations 2017 - Report to Congress Submitted Pursuant to Public Laws 101-246 and 108-447. Disponível em:
WANG, X.-L. Cultural Mediators or Marginal Persons? Geographical Review, v. 81, p. 292–303, 1991.
WATSON, J.; LIPPITT, R. Cross-Cultural Experience as a Source of Attitude Change. Journal of Conflict Resolution, v. 2, p. 61–66, 1958.
WILSON, E. C.; BONILLA, F. Evaluating Exchange of Persons Programs. The Public Opinion Quarterly, v. 19, n. 20–30, 1955.
WITTKOPF, E. R. Foreign Aid and United Nations Votes: A Comparative Study. American Political Science Review, v. 67, n. 03, p. 868–888, 1973.
WOJCIUK, A.; MICHAŁEK, M.; STORMOWSKA, M. Education as a source and tool of soft power in international relations. European Political Science, v. 14, n. 3, p. 298–317, 2015.
YOUNG, O. The Effectiveness of International Institutions: Hard Cases and Critical Variables. In: ROSENAU, J. N.; CZEMPIEL, E. O. (Eds.). . Governance Without Government: Order and Change in World Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. p. 160–194.
YULE, G. U.; KENDALL, M. G. An introduction to the theory of statistics. London: Charles Griffin, 1937.
Publicado
23-07-2023
Como Citar
Novelli, D., & Pereira, A. E. (2023). “Nosso mais valioso recurso”: mensurando o impacto dos programas de intercâmbio estadunidenses sobre o comportamento internacional de outros Estados. Estudos Internacionais: Revista De relações Internacionais Da PUC Minas, 10(3), 7-20. https://doi.org/10.5752/P.2317-773X.2022v10n3p7-20
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