El fin del Imperio Otomano y la Creación del Estado Iraquí más allá de Sykes-Picot: entre el imperialismo y la revolución
entre el imperialismo y la revolución.
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5752/P.2317-773X.2020v8n4p35-58Palabras clave:
Irak, Imperio Otomano, Imperio Británico, Sistema de Mandatos, Petróleo, Revueltas ÁrabesResumen
Hay un consenso en la literatura académica sobre la creación de estados modernos en Oriente Medio en que el punto de partida para comprender este proceso se da en el momento de la desintegración del Imperio Otomano y su sustitución por las potencias europeas. En el caso de Irak, la campaña militar y los períodos de ocupación (1914-1920) y el mandato británico (1920-1932) en Mesopotamia allanaron el camino para la creación del estado de Irak, influyendo significativamente en su posterior desarrollo histórico-político. Sin embargo, además de las acciones diplomáticas establecidas por acuerdos y tratados internacionales bajo los lineamientos establecidos por la Liga de Naciones, este proceso no se dio en un espacio vacío como suele mencionarse en esa misma literatura. Los enfrentamientos por el acceso al petróleo de la región, ejemplificados por la disputa por la región de Mosul, demuestran el carácter político-económico de la construcción de nuevas fronteras. Y más, este resultado no fue únicamente el resultado de la acción política planificada por el Imperio Británico, sino que también se derivó de revueltas antiimperialistas en toda la región. De esta manera, el resultado político final de Irak, y su posterior desarrollo, reflejó no solo la presencia de estructuras de poder imperial, sino también la participación de comunidades y grupos locales, en conexión con movimientos internacionales.
Descargas
Citas
ANGHIE. A. Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
ANGHIE, A. The Evolution of International Law: Colonial and Postcolonial Realities in FALK, R.; RAJAOPAL, B.; STEVENS, J. International law and the third world: Reshaping justice. London: Routledge-Cavendish. 2008, chap. 4.
ATABAKI, T.; BINI, E.; EHSANI, K. Working for Oil: Comparative Social Histories of Labor in the Global Oil Industry. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.
BARR, J. A Line in the Sand: Britain, France and the struggle that shaped the Middle East. London: Simon & Schuster, 2011.
BARTOV, O.; WEITZ, E. D. (eds.), Shatterzone of Empires. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013, 543 p.
CLEVELAND, W.; BUNTON, M. A History of the Modern Middle East. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 2009.
CROZIER, A. J. The Establishment of the Mandates System 1919-25: Some Problems Created by the Paris Peace Conference. Journal of Contemporary History, Essex, v. 14, i. 3, p. 483-513, 1979.
DAVIS, R. Britain's Middle Eastern policy, 1900-1931: dual attractions of empire and europe. Histoire@Politique. Paris, v. 2, i. 11, p. 7, 2010.
DODGE, T. Inventing Iraq: The Failure of Nation-Building and a History Denied. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
ENGDAHL, F. W. A Century of War: Anglo-American Oil Politics and the New World Order. London: Pluto Press, 2004.
FROMKIN, D. Britain, France, and the Diplomatic Agreements. In: SPECTOR, R.; TEJIRIAN, E. H.; SICK, G. The Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921. Columbia University Press: New York, 2004, p. 134-145.
GELVIN. J. L. The Modern Middle East. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011
GÖKAY, B. A Clash of Empires Turkey between Russian Bolshevism and British Imperialism, 1918-1923. London; New York: Tauris Academic Studies, 1997.
GROVOGUI, S. N'Z. Sovereigns, quasi sovereigns, and Africans: race and selfdetermination in international law. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 1996.
GRUEN, G. E. The Oil Resources of Iraq: Their Role in the Policies of the Great Powers. In: SPECTOR, R.: TEJIRIAN, E. H.; Gary Sick. The Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921. Columbia University Press: New York, 2004, pp.110-124.
GUPTA, S. Communism and the Crisis of the Colonial System. In: PONS, S.; SMITH S. The Cambridge History of Communism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2017, pp. 212-231.
JOUNETT, E. T. A short Introduction to International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
KADHIM, A. Reclaiming Iraq: The 1920 Revolution and the founding of the Modern State. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2012.
KENT, M. Oil and Empire: British Policy and Mesopotamian Oil 1900-1920. London; Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1976.
ULRICHSEN, K. C. The First World War in the Middle East. London: Oxford University Press, 2014.
LLEWELLYN-JONES, R. The British Raj and the British Mandate in Iraq. Asian Affairs, London, v. XLVI, i. II, p. 270–279, 2015.
MACFIE, A. L. British Intelligence and the Causes of Unrest in Mesopotamia, 1919-21. Middle Eastern Studies. London, v. 35, i.1, p. 165-177, 1999.
MARR, P.; AL-MARASHI, I. The Modern History of Iraq. Fourth edition. London; New York: Routledge, 2017.
MANELA, E. The Wilsonian Moment: self-determination and the international origins of anticolonial nationalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007
MCNABB, D. E. Oil and the creation of Iraq: policy failures and the 1914-1918 war in Mesopotamia. New York; London: Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group, 2016.
MEJCHER, H. Oil and British policy towards Mesopotamia, 1914–1918. Middle Eastern Studies. London, v. 8, i. 3, p. 377-391, 1972.
MILLMAN, B. Pessimism and British War Policy, 1916-1918. 1st Edition. London; New York: Routledge, 2014.
NEIBERG, M. S. The Treaty of Versailles: A Concise History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.
PEDERSEN, S. The meaning of the mandates system: An argument (League of Nations). Geschichte und Gesellschaft (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht). Göttingen, v. 32, i. 4, p. 560-582, 2006.
POOL, D. From Elite to Class: The Transformation of Iraqi Leadership 1920-1939. International Journal of Middle East Studies. Cambridge, v. 12, p. 331-350, 1980.
PROVENCE, M. The Last Ottoman Generation and the Making of the Modern Middle East. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017.
PURSLEY, S. Lines Drawn on an Empty Map: Iraq’s borders and the legend of the artificial state (part 1). Jadaliyya. Washington Dc, USA; Beirut, Lebanon, 2 jun. 2015. Available in <https://www.jadaliyya.com/Details/32140/%60Lines-Drawn-on-an-Empty-Map%60-Iraq%E2%80%99s-Borders-and-the-Legend-of-the-Artificial-State-Part-1> access 04/09/2020.
RENTON, J. The post-colonial caliphate: Islamic State and the memory of Sykes-Picot. The Convesation. Boston, USA. February 23, 2016. Available in <https://theconversation.com/the-post-colonial-caliphate-islamic-state-and-the-memory-of-sykes-picot-52655> access 27/08/2020.
ROGAN, E. The Fall of The Ottomans: The great War on the Middle East. New York: Basic Books, 2015.
SCHAYEGH, C; ARSAN, A. (eds.) The Routledge handbook of the history of the Middle East Mandates, London: Routledge, 2015.
SILVERFARB, D. Britain’s Informal Empire in the Middle East: A case Study of Iraq 1929-1941. New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.
SLUGLETT, P. Britain in Iraq: Contriving King and Country. London; New York: I.B. Tauris, 2007.
SPECTOR, R.; TEJIRIAN, E. H.; SICK, G. The Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921. Columbia University Press: New York, 2004.
TRIPP, C. A History of Iraq. Third edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
ULLMAN, James R. Anglo-Soviet Relations, 1917-1921, Volume 3: The Anglo-Soviet Accord. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2019.
YAVUZ, R. Effects of the Decisions of San Remo Conference on Syria and Iraq. Tarih İncelemeleri Dergisi. Izmir, Turkey, v. XXXII, i.2, p. 565-600, 2017.
YENEN, A. The Other Jihad: Enver Pasha, Bolsheviks, and Politics of Anticolonial Muslim Nationalism during the Baku Congress 1920. In FRASER, G. T.: The First World War and its Aftermath: The Shaping of the Middle East. London: Gingko Library, 2015.
Publicado
Cómo citar
Número
Sección
Licencia
Autores que publicam nesta revista concordam com os seguintes termos:
1. Autores mantém os direitos autorais e concedem à revista o direito de primeira publicação, com o trabalho simultaneamente licenciado sob a Licença Creative Commons Attribution que permite o compartilhamento do trabalho com reconhecimento da autoria e publicação inicial nesta revista.
2.Autores têm autorização para assumir contratos adicionais separadamente, para distribuição não-exclusiva da versão do trabalho publicada nesta revista (ex.: publicar em repositório institucional ou como capítulo de livro), com reconhecimento de autoria e publicação inicial nesta revista.
3.Autores têm permissão e são estimulados a publicar e distribuir seu trabalho online (ex.: em repositórios institucionais ou na sua página pessoal) a qualquer ponto antes ou durante o processo editorial, já que isso pode gerar alterações produtivas, bem como aumentar o impacto e a citação do trabalho publicado (Veja O Efeito do Acesso Livre).